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Burgoyne's Plan
In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne proposed a plan for defeating the Americans. Believing that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he proposed cutting the region off from the other colonies by moving down the Lake Champlain-Hudson River corridor while a second force, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, advanced east from Lake Ontario and down the Mohawk River. Meeting at Albany, Burgoyne and St. Leger would press down the Hudson, while Howe's army advanced north. Though approved by Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain, Howe's role in the plan was never clearly defined and issues of his seniority precluded Burgoyne from issuing him orders.
The Philadelphia Campaign
Operating on his own, Howe prepared his own campaign for capturing the American capital at Philadelphia. Leaving a small force under Major General Henry Clinton at New York, he embarked 13,000 men on transports and sailed south. Entering the Chesapeake, the fleet traveled north and the army landed at Head of Elk, MD on August 25, 1777. In position with 8,000 Continentals and 3,000 militia to defend the capital, Washington dispatched units to track and harass Howe's army.
Aware that he would have to face Howe, Washington prepared to make a stand along the banks of the Brandywine River. Forming his men in a strong position near Chadd's Ford, Washington awaited the British. In surveying the American position on September 11, Howe elected to use the same strategy he employed at Long Island. Using Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen's Hessians, Howe fixed the American center in place along the creek with a diversionary attack, while marching the bulk of this army around Washington's right flank. Attacking, Howe was able to drive the Americans from the field and captured the bulk of their artillery. Ten days later, Brigadier General Anthony Wayne's men were beaten at the Paoli Massacre.
With Washington defeated, Congress fled Philadelphia and reconvened at York, PA. Outmaneuvering Washington, Howe entered the city on September 26. Eager to redeem the defeat at Brandywine and re-take the city, Washington began planning a counterattack against British forces located at Germantown. Devising a complicated assault plan, Washington's columns became delayed and confused in the thick morning fog on October 4. In the resulting Battle of Germantown, American forces achieved early success and were on the verge of a great victory before confusion in the ranks and strong British counterattacks turned the tide.
Among those who had performed badly at Germantown was Major General Adam Stephen who had been drunk during the fighting. Not hesitating, Washington sacked him in favor of the promising young Frenchmen, the Marquis de Lafayette, who had recently joined the army. With the campaign season winding down, Washington moved the army to Valley Forge for winter quarters. Enduring a hard winter, the American army underwent extensive training under the watchful eye of Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. Another foreign volunteer, von Steuben had served as a staff officer in the Prussian army and imparted his knowledge to the Continental forces.
The Tide Turns at Saratoga
While Howe was planning his campaign against Philadelphia, Burgoyne moved forward with the other elements of his plan. Pressing down Lake Champlain, he easily captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 6, 1777. As a result, Congress replaced the American commander in the area, General Philip Schuyler, with General Horatio Gates. Pushing south, Burgoyne won minor victories at Hubbardton and Fort Ann and elected to move overland towards the American position at Fort Edward. Moving through the forest, Burgoyne's progress was slowed as the Americans felled tree across the roads and worked to obstruct the British advance.
To the west, St. Leger laid siege to Fort Stanwix on August 3, and defeated an American relief column at the Battle of Oriskany three days later. Still commanding the American army, Schuyler dispatched Major General Benedict Arnold to break the siege. As Arnold approached, St. Leger's Native American allies fled after hearing exaggerated accounts regarding the size of Arnold's force. Left on his own, St. Leger had no choice but to retreat west. As Burgoyne neared Fort Edward, the American army fell back to Stillwater.
Though he had won several minor victories, the campaign had cost Burgoyne heavily as his supply lines lengthened and men were detached for garrison duty. In early August, Burgoyne detached part of his Hessian contingent to search for supplies in nearby Vermont. This force was engaged and decisively defeated at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. Three days later Burgoyne made camp near Saratoga to rest his men and await news from St. Leger and Howe.
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